Pros and Cons of Alternative Work Schedule

Many people are now opting to find work schedules that would best fit their lifestyles and suit their needs in doing other tasks. Some people are having a difficult time adhering on the traditional work schedules or the work schedules as prescribed by their company. That is why they look for schedules that will best suit their needs and allow them to manage their time on their own. Everyone has their own perception of flexibility and work. Such perceptions may greatly depend on the personal needs, educational background, skills and the type of work that you are about to pursue.Alternative work schedules refer to the type of schedule that is not based on the conventional work schedule. Types of alternative work schedules include part-time employment, flexible leave and subcontracting. Part-time employment has the advantage of doing many jobs effectively; however, employing two part-timers may cost more than employing one full-time employee. However, part-time employment may be a bette r option than lay-offs (Rogovsky, Ozoux, Esser, Marpe & Broughton, 2005). On the other hand, subcontracting is the type of alternative work schedule that is detaching some of the employees in period of time.The employees still belong to the company but they will work for another company. Flexible leave allows the employees to avail limited leave that is agreed by the company and the employee (Rogovsky et al. , 2005). Flex-time is a growing idea in the business industry and becoming a popular option in the workplace’s work arrangements. The idea that the employees should not be tied on to their desks the whole week emerged in the 1990’s. Today, flexibility is an integral part of business. This is expected already as the new generation enters the workforce (Bitti, 2008).The inception of new technology, especially the use of computers, changed the landscape of work arrangements. It allows employees to be more present or attend to their work anytime and anywhere if their w ork is accessible in the internet. That is why more companies are embracing flexi-time work schedules for their work arrangements (Bitti, 2008). Compressed work week is becoming an option for the company to attract more employees and increase their productivity. Compressed work week means that you will work for the same number of hours as they would work for regular week but in fewer days (MacKillop, Geddie & Miedema, 2003).Compressed work week may be in the form of flexible work arrangement in order to maintain balance between work and family. Alternative work schedules provide options for the employees that have other responsibilities – either at home or at school – as most of the people that seek for alternative work schedules are mothers who are engaged in household activities and students who seek job opportunities while studying. The alternative work schedule has its own advantages and disadvantages. Flexible work arrangement is a type of alternative work schedul e that renders benefits to the employees.One of the advantages it renders is allowing employees not to commute on the rush hour that is less stressful on the part of the employees (Katepoo, 2008). Alternative work schedule also improve the morale of the employees and considerably reduce the stress experienced of the employees. Alternative work schedule can lower the absences of the employees and can contribute greatly in productivity. In addition, the overtime pay for the employees is reduced, thus lowering the costs for the employers (Beierlein & Van Horn, 1995).Moreover, there is an enhancement in the aspect of recruitment as well as for the people who may be unavailable for the traditional work schedule. The business hours are also extended due to flex-time and compressed work week options. The equipment and facilities are also economically used in alternative work schedules (Beierlein & Van Horn, 1995). One of the advantages of the flexi-time is that it allows the employees to j uggle different things while receiving a regular payment. They are able to attend to other things without sacrificing their work (Bitti, 2008).Alternative work schedule also has its own share of disadvantages. This includes mentally and physically stressful or draining for the employees working in the compressed work week arrangement. This may also become the onset of chronic fatigue due to work and family conflict time pressures in some types of alternative work schedule. The compressed work schedule may render difficulty especially for mothers who are attending household responsibilities (Katepoo, 2008). Furthermore, supervisors and subordinates may not work on the same schedule making it hard for the management to effectively manage the company.Problems may also arise in the areas of timekeeping and how benefits are distributed (Beierlein & Van Horn, 1995). There is also the possibility of lower workforce on peak days that require the managements to establish efficient cross and back-up training and good communication system to ensure high productivity. In compressed work week arrangement, people with young family members spend longer hours in the office in some days and experience difficulty in their day care obligations (MacKillop, Geddie & Miedema, 2003).The alternative work schedule is a growing trend in the business industry and slowly gaining popularity in some companies. It renders advantages not only for the employees but also for the employer and the company. However, the alternative work schedule has its own set of disadvantages for both parties.References Beierlein, J. G. & Van Horn, J. E. (1995, June). Alternative Work Schedule. National Network for Child Care. Retrieved November 12, 2008, from http://www. nncc. org/EO/emp. alt. work. sched. html.Bitti, T. (2008, July 14). What are the pros and cons of flex time?. Financial Post. Retrieved November 12, 2008, from http://www. financialpost. com/small_business/businesssolutions/story. html? id=645 783.Katepoo, P. (2008). Compressed Workweek: Pros & Cons as a Flexible Work Arrangement. WorkOptions. com. Retrieved November 12, 2008, from http://www. workoptions. com/compros. htm.MacKillop, M. , Geddie, J. & Miedema, A. (2003). Legal Terms for Human Resources Professionals. Canada: CCH Canadian Ltd. Rogovsky, N. , Ozoux, P. , Esser, D. , Marpe, T. & Broughton, A. (2005). Restructuring for Corporate Success: A Socially Sensitive Approach. Geneva: International Labour Organization.

Types of Volcano Erruption

Volcanic eruptions have caused some of the worst disasters in the world. They can wipe out entire cities and kill thousands of people. The name of volcano comes from Roman term. It derives from Vulcan which is the name of Roman fire god. Romans believed that Vulcan lived on a volcanic Italian coast. Romans called the island Vulcano. According to scientists, volcanic eruptions are divided in to four basic groups. They are commonly known as Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian, and Peleean. The term of Hawaiian eruptions are named after the volcanoes in Hawaii. These volcanic eruptions are the least violent type.They produce highly fluid lava which flows quietly. This gradually builds up a shield volcano. Strombolian eruptions are named after Stromboli. These result from the constant release of gas from the magma. As the gas escapes, it produces tephra that piles up, turning into a cinder cone. Strombolian eruptions happen when sticky magma plugs the central vent. This makes the magmatic g as build up pressure until it blasts. The magma is turned into volcanic dust and bombs. Vulcanian eruption which comes from the ancient Roman belief, are more violent than the strombolian eruption.Vulcanian eruption happens and brings magma which is more viscous. Vulcanian explosions are usually larger and noisier than the Strombolian eruptions. Paleean eruptions are famous as the most violent kind of volcanic eruptions. The name of Paleean comes from the eruption of Mount Pelee, Martinique in 1902. It killed almost 38 thousands people. A Peleean eruption occurs when the magmatic gas build up tremendous pressure. This causes violent explosions with glowing clouds of hot ash and dust. Tornadoes are known as one of the most damaging disasters.A tornado is a very powerful column of winds which spirals around a center of low atmospheric pressure. A tornado will look like a large black funnel which hangs down from a storm cloud. The name â€Å"tornado† derives from the Latin †Å"tonare†. It means â€Å"to thunder. † While the Spanish developed the word into â€Å"tornear† which means â€Å"to turn or twist†. T his is why a tornado is sometimes called twister or cyclone. The winds inside a twister can spin around at speeds up to 500 miles an hour, but it usually travels at roughly 300 miles an hour.This speed twisting makes a tornado the most dangerous storm. The average tornado has a diameter of about 200 to 300 yards. The smaller tornadoes are known as satellite tornadoes. These small offspring, about 50 yards acro ss, can be very fierce and do lots of damage. The forming of a tornado can be very quick. Sometimes it can form in a minute or less. A tornado can travel across the ground at high speeds, then it can sudden ly vanish. Most tornadoes last less than twenty minutes and travel less than 15 miles. However, the super storms sometimes travel over 100 miles before they are exhausted.

International Marketing Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

International Marketing Report - Essay Example Sony is one of the leaders in the entertainment industry as it manufactures entertainment gadgets like video games, televisions, and many more. According to Interbrand top a hundred Global Brands in the year 2011, Sony emerged position thirty-six among other a hundred brands. It is also among the top a hundred effectively managed companies across the business world (Koontz & Weihrich, 2006:104). This was because of its renowned heritage of creativeness and innovativeness. Sony boasts of having products in the electronic, games, entertainment, and in the provision of financial service sectors. In this regard, this essay will delve on a critical analysis of Sony’s marketing mix across the international markets. Further, it will highlight the International Process Theory that correctly describes Sony’s internationalization with supportive evidence. Lastly, it will discuss the extent to which Sony’s company country of origin influences consumers’ perception of Sony’s products by giving proper justification. Sony and the marketing mix Marketing mix is a business-marketing tool, which encompasses the four Ps in the influencing of consumers towards accessing a company’s products and services for the attainment of its goals and objectives (Lamb et al, 2008:148). The four P’s are price, place, promotion, and product that when mixed reflect the nature of different services within a market. Sequentially, Sony Company has managed tot use this marketing tool in the diversification of its products and its price range to favor its consumer base. Additionally, Sony has capitalized on favorable places in which they distribute there products and have implemented various promotion strategies to increase awareness of its products to its target market. Product In essence, a product is anything presented to a market for the market to be aware of its existence, after which they will buy, and then use it to satisfy either a want or a ne ed (Richter, 2012:29). A certain number of factors influence a products uptake within a market that may range from the brand name that a market associates its products to a number of others. In addition, the packing aspects of the products and the safety standards applied within the use of the product also influence the sale of products. Remarkably, the style, packaging, quality, and warranty associated with the product are attributes that also propagate a consumer towards buying of certain products within a market setting. For instance, consumers tend to access products from company’s who offer variety and improvement in the quality of already of already existing goods in a market. In this regard, Sony Company offers a number of products to the electronic, games and entertainment fields. For instance, the company manufactures television screens and projector, cameras, home theatre systems, computer hardware, mobile phones, and car entertainment devices. Additionally, Sony is a manufacturer of home recording devices, storage media, and charging devices. Ideally, Sony has further divided some of its products in to other sub categories especially on the television products. This has made the company able to service its market thorough the innovation of tailor made products that suit their various clients. These customers include households, offices, and public gatherings. Ideally, their products are able to meet the needs of their customers without financial

Family And Local History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Family And Local History - Essay Example Local history surviving records, their location and uses Record of protests in the royal burgh of Perth are located in Perth and Kinross archives, these records are stored under the record number B59/11 and date from 1809 to 1849, these records can be used to the understand the issues of the people who lived in Perth and the reasons that forced them to hold the protests. A limitation in these records is that they have only been recorded for a short period of time between 1809 and 1849, which may make them not fully show the trend or the frequency of the protests in the long run. Another record that is available in the Perth and Kinross council archives is the register of acts of town council and indexes to the council minutes, which are recorded in under the identity B59/16-17. The register of acts of town council contains acts that were made between 1601 and 1752 while the indexes to the minutes of the council and the acts are recorded for the years between 1500 and 1797. These reco rd are relevant in explaining the evolution of the council acts and proceedings, in addition they also show the issues that were prioritised in that period depending on the number of acts or the depth of the act relating to that issue. Treasurer accounts of the council which are stored under the identification number B59/18 are recorded for the period between 1670 and 1765,these records shows the treasures charge and discharge with details of expenditure and income of the council including the names of burgesses entered and the names of all council employees (Dobson, 64). These records can be used to determine the trends of expenditure and sources of income for the council of Perth, this information can be used by modern day... This essay stresses that most of the records in the Perth and Kinross council archive collection include documents on how the region was governed which include the legal and administrative documents. Other documents were on how the authority carried out their financial processes and regulated business activities. However, these records contain scanty documents on family issues and the specific demographic characteristics. This paper makes a conclusion that to encourage people from, other regions of the world who may not be conversant with the ancient language used in Scotland, texts such as those that have financial and legal information should have a simpler version created which is easier to understand while still maintaining the original information. In order to increase the number of people that can access historical information on Perth and Kinross, the authorities should have copies of the documents in archives of other major cities in addition to posting them on the internet to build the desire of internet users to tour the country especially in the 2014 homecoming celebrations. Financial information contained in the collection has used the old standards of accounting principles; this makes it hard for the visitors, especially those from outside the United Kingdom to understand some of the information since they may not be conversant with the accounting procedures used.

Community assessment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Community assessment - Assignment Example Approximately 79% of the learners in the Kingsbridge Heights schools qualify from the state funded or free lunch program. Majority of the schools are good; this is because they realize the Adequate Yearly Progress performance level, which is determined by the New York State Department of Education. The individual school report card for all the schools in the Kingsbridge are illustrated in the education website, http://schools.nyc.gov/daa. The Fellows, who work in the Kingsbridge schools, live within the neighborhoods of entire West and South Bronx, Inwood region of Manhattan, and the upper east and west areas of Manhattan. There are five high schools in the Kingsbridge area. These schools are; Bronx High School of Science, De Witt Clinton High School, High School for Teaching and the Professions, Bronx high School of Music and Discovery High School. Bronx High School of Science has a learners and Fellows population of population of 335 and 8 respectively. The proportion of students who qualify for the free lunch program is 22.4%. De Witt Clinton High School has population of 2,502 and 27 Fellows. 90.8% of the students qualify for the free lunch program; thus majority of learners come from poor backgrounds (Banchero, 2013). High School for Teaching and the professions has the highest student population at 4,410, and the fellows number only 8. The education standards at the school are relatively low because of the overworked teaching staffs. 74.5% of the learners benefit from the free lunch program.364 students learn at Bronx High School of Music, which has a teaching staff numbering 4, and eligibility for free lunch program at 74.5%. Discovery High School has a population of 540, and the teacher number is 9. 25.6% of the students are eligible for the free lunch program. The only secondary school in the region is Walton High School that has 1,067 students and 6 Fellows. 81.2% of the

5 questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

5 questions - Essay Example The business would be mainly financed by my own money ( savings); however, a loan would also be secured to ensure that all the physical set-up of the place as well as operational expenses would be covered for the first six months of operation. The planning part is executed well since the owners have already prepared a reasonable budget. There is also a need to spend for marketing by hiring a public relations agency that can suitably promote the restaurant to its target market. The cafà © can be considered competitive for three good reasons 1) the food selection that is considered healthy for the heart 2) the cozy and intimate ambience that is different from other competitors since our cafà © has a love theme 3) excellent service to the customers. As for the third reason, the owners have decided to give attention to the training and development of its crew since good service is highly correlated with profitability. In conclusion, this cafà © business would be profitable on the assu mption that quality service and good promotions would be implemented by the

Broadcast Radio Stations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Broadcast Radio Stations - Essay Example This paper will seek to provide the primary product or service of this business sector, ways of making money in this business, and explain how profitable this sector is. Additionally, the paper will also address the key corporations of this business, recent developments, and discuss the current prospects and direction of this business as well as include an overview of any other unique feature of this business. Primary service The primary product or service of broadcast radio stations today is listeners and the means of production owners. Research findings point out that, the main of broadcasting radio today is to communicate or rather air out issues to as many listeners as possible (Greb & Adams, 2003). This shows that acquiring the largest number of listeners is of paramount importance to broadcasting radios as of today (Slotten, 2009). This is because, if the number of prospective listeners of a particular broadcasting radio station is high, its demand for commercials is also high. Generally, having a huge volume of listeners dictates a radio station’s demand in the market given the fact that prospective clients opt for widely listened broadcasting radio stations (Sickles, 2008). The sector’s money generation Every business has ways in which it generates income. However, the case with radio station is a bit complex. Studies show that, most of the money obtained by broadcasting radio stations comes from advertisements (Enrique, 2008). When different companies and organizations as well as other parties come to realize that a certain broadcasting radio station has a huge following in terms of listeners, then these companies choose to advertise with that particular radio station. As such, when these companies or rather clients bring their advertisements, the radio station charges them (Sickles, 2008). Bear in mind that the common aim of these advertisements is to encourage those listening to buy the advertised product more. Apart from advertisements , radio stations also make money through announcements. These announcements could be mainly about certain messages or meetings whose aim is to reach masses. Radio stations charges these announcements with regard to the amount of the required airing time and the frequency with which to be repeated. Therefore, by charging companies for their advertisements and charging special announcements, radio stations generate money (Greb & Adams, 2003). Profitability It is understandable that this sector of telecommunication is indeed profitable. Nevertheless, many people fail to understand how broadcasting radio stations make profits. As explained, the demand for a radio station is high if it has the largest number of listeners and in this way, it gets to make its money (Ickes, 2006). Similarly, the level of profits of a radio station relies heavily on the number of listeners that it has. Observations have indicated that, radios stations with the highest number of listeners make huge profits ma inly because their demand is high (Sickles, 2008). Generally, companies and other radio station’s clients seek to make their advertisements and announcements through the most listened radio station. With that respect, radio stations that meet this requirement make huge profits, as the number of advertisements and announcements is always high (Enrique, 2008). Thus, it is agreeable that this sector of business generates very high profits but the level of these profits profoundly

Annotated resources Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Resources - Annotated Bibliography Example All the actions that are described in the gospel reflect to actions in the environment. There is the keeping of track of the prophecy of coming of the messiah in the gospel. The gospel does not extend after resurrection of Messiah but ends after there is discovery that the tomb was empty. In the gospel, it is brought out the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist to be an event that aimed mainly in preparing the way. Isaiah writes that there would be a messenger that was to be sent who was to prepare the way. John the Baptist goes in the wilderness preaching about preparing the way for the son of God and preaching about baptism as a way of repentance and forgiveness of sins. He baptized people in river Jordan where the Messiah also is baptized. As Jesus came out of water after baptism, the haven was open and a dove descended with a voice from heaven which said that he was the son of God with whom he is pleased. After baptism, john was put in prison but Jesus went to Galilee to proclaim the good news of the Lord telling people to repent and believe in the good news. Jesus spreads the gospel and calls His first disciples Simon and his brother Andrew when they were fishing. The gospel journey of Messiah continues in the gospel of Mark with varied healings and casting out of demons. The healings are done to anyone including one with leprosy who came begging on his knees for the will to be healed. The gospel was important in understanding the context in which Jesus lived. It is seen that in the gospel, geography of Palestine was not changed as it still contained both fertile and desert lands. The people at the time engaged mainly in farming and manual working through keeping of sheep and engaging in services such as carpentry and pottery. The area was occupied by many races that spoke different languages and had different cultures. In the gospel, Jesus was born a Jew and remained to be identified with the tribe and culture. Gospel

Proposal Argument Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Proposal Argument - Research Paper Example However, the war in Iraq has resulted into suffering and distraction of lives of the citizens. Furthermore, the incarceration of Saddam Hussein meant that terrorist threats from Iraq were no longer looming. Finally, no weapons of mass destruction were found in the country as earlier stated by the US. I propose the millennial solution in ending the war in Iraq. To start with, the millennials are the individuals that have grown up in the face of war in Iraq. They grew up experiencing their peers being shipped to fight in wars and also watching ‘Operation Iraqi Freedom’ on the various media platforms (Schwartz 65). Millenials have been known to put up vibrant battles against the war. By the time the war finally came to an end in 2011, the millennials that were middle school when the war began has come of age to watch the US soldiers set up the war operations and understand what was going on. Iraq is back in the news again as a militia organization referred to as the Islamic State of Iraq, ISIS, al-Sham among other names has spread across the southern and northern regions of the country. Unfortunately, with all the damage that has been going on, TV interviews and the debate on the internet has been missing the important contribution of millennials who are the individuals that grew up in the face of the war (Billitteri 34). The best solution that has been proposed is by getting the millenials more involved in the peace-keeping and finding a lasting solution for the war in Iraq. It has been observed that this generation did not vote for the war that started in 2003 or even plan for it. Nevertheless, they have paid a dear price for it. To start with, the war has taken the lives of approximately 4,500 millenials and cost the nation a figure estimated between $4 to $6 trillion (Billitteri 15). The war has also taken away the lives of more than 100,000 innocent civilians. Regrettably, there are global political leaders that have served as champions for the

Reflection on assignment 1 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reflection on 1 - Assignment Example And so it will be for our case study scenario. Knowledge management is generally a form of implementation expertise-centered management that focuses upon working with human expertise so as to achieve the strategized business advantages, Broadbent, M. (1988). An illustrative diagram of the knowledge management protocols that should be implemented in any organization for effectiveness in information sharing and better communication between organizations’ managers and other staffs members of the organization is shown below. As shown in the above diagram, the cycle of knowledge management system is continuous; capturing management of information flows, capturing of organizational learning exercises, leveraging the organizational knowledge base and working on sustainable business value of the organization at large, Boynton, A. (1996). ... ch team member of the working force with general/ whole experiences of the organization/ company, organized in the provided knowledge management system to enable for quicker, consistent and confidentiality in the handling of the organizations’ operational and managerial tasks. This therefore means that knowledge management helps to avoid reworks which are known to the managements as costly and common in situations of limited or no knowledge managerial skills. ii. Basing on the work as the main focus, knowledge management has demonstrated the benefits such as increased contact resolutions; decreased rates of escalations; advanced speed/ rates of performing tasks in terms of time utility; and finally, handling of the significant growths in clients related services and their satisfaction without any corresponding increase in the numbers of workers in that relation. iii. Considering situations where a client may wish to reach the management, effective knowledge management are most ly applicable to enable self-service all channels of choice as may be required by most clients. This practice allows clients to frequently get back to using an organization’s products or services, and consequently giving room for the organization’s workforce to highly concentrate on the high-value matters that require recommendable expertise. Case Analysis Organizations with well stipulated knowledge management systems in place have the characteristics of learning their own organizations with well structured and managed information flows and the general organizational behaviors in the areas of leadership, culture, managing people as assets, and both structures and processes. Having discussed the difficulties experienced in our case scenario, the importance of accessibility to and improved

Analysis of Newspaper Research Report Results Essay Example for Free

Analysis of Newspaper Research Report Results Essay A study recently published in the San Jose Mercury News suggests the parents of obese children do not perceive their children as obese. An analysis of this study, its methods, and its findings is an important exercise in understanding the meaning and relevance of all research. The ability to read research critically and understand how it was generated allows us to identify possible design flaws or to realize the validity of its conclusions and make appropriate use of the data. The study was conducted through an internet research firm for the University of Michigan. Its goal was to determine the percentage of parents who realized their children are obese and to compare it to the percentage of parents that do not realize their children are obese. The participants were selected by simple random sampling and were considered a representative sample of American parents. The sample included 2060 respondents (Runk, 2007). The data appeared to be collected through internet surveys. The study was observational and measured continuous data sets including the height, weight, age, and gender of the participants children (Bennett, Briggs, Triola, 2003). A body mass index greater than or equal to the 95th percentile in comparison to children the same age and gender was the criteria used for obesity in this study. The data from these children was then compared the national percentage of children considered obese by the same standards. Qualitative data pertaining to whether or not the parents thought their children were slightly overweight, very overweight, or about right was also collected (Runk, 2007). Although it was not specifically stated, I hypothesize the children studied were broken down into bins by age and gender. The first bin comprised of obese girls six to 11 years old and the second bin obese boys six to11 years old. For the 12 to 17 year old group the first bin included obese girls 12 to 17 years old and the second bin included obese boys 12 to 17 years old. I further hypothesize the parents of children in each group were binned according to their response to the qualitative assessment of their childs weight. For each age group the first bin included parents who answered   very overweight, the second bin included parents who answered slightly overweight, and the third bin included parents who answered about normal (Bennett, Briggs, Triola, 2003). The findings in the six to 11 year old group revealed 15% of the children in this age group met the criteria for obesity. This finding was not significantly different from the national figure which reports 17% of all children in the United States are obese by the standard of this study. Thirteen percent of the parents of obese children in this age group categorized their children as very overweight, 37% classified their children as slightly overweight, and 43% reported their children were about right (Runk, 2007). The findings in the 12 to 17 year old group revealed 10% of children in this age group met the criteria for obesity. This finding is significantly lower than the national figure for obese children. Thirty one percent of the parents of obese children in this age group reported their children as being very overweight, 56% reported their children as slightly overweight, and 11% reported their children were about right (Runk, 2007). Researchers concluded both age groups under reported the incidence and severity of obesity when compared to the national statistic stating 17% of all children meet the criteria for obesity outlined in this study (Runk, 2007). I agree the severity of obesity was greatly under reported in both groups. However, I disagree with the assertion the incidence of obesity was under reported in the six to 11 year old group. I believe the difference between 15% and 17% could easily be a coincidence. It may also have resulted because the internet was used to collect data and poor children are more likely to be obese and less likely to have internet access (Vieweg, Johnston, Fernandez Pandurangi, 2007). I do agree that obesity seemed to be considerably under reported in the 12 to 17 year old group. A statistically significant difference (about 7%) occurred between that age groups 10% incidence and the 17% national incidence of childhood obesity (Runk, 2007). Such a large difference is unlikely to be a coincidence and supports the theory that obesity was under reported in this age group or  confounding was present (Bennett, Briggs, Triola, 2003). Critical analysis of this data reveals many strengths and a few significant weaknesses in the design and implementation of this study. The goal is clearly stated, to determine the percentage of parents who realized their children are obese and to compare it to the percentage of parents that do not realize their children are obese. This goal was clearly accomplished for all the study participants. The source of the study is the University of Michigan which can be considered a reliable, neutral source. The sampling is sufficiently large, but whether or not it is representative of childhood obesity in this country is questionable. A serious problem with the sample exists as a result of using the internet as the setting. High proportions of obese children are socioeconomically disadvantaged and may not have internet access. The internet setting is likely to account for the apparent under reporting of obese children noted in this study and as such is a probable source of confounding. The criterion for obesity is well defined and could be easily measured in all the subjects, but I remain concerned a significant portion of obese children may have been inadvertently omitted from consideration. In the end, however, I find there is a strong practical use for this data. Healthcare providers are made conscious of the fact that the parents are, more often than not, genuinely unaware their child is obese. This data supports the decision to open a dialogue with parents and offer teaching about the dangers and prevention of childhood obesity the clear course of action. References: Bennett, J., Briggs, W., Triola, M. (2003). Statistical Reasoning for EverydayLife, Second Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison Wesley. RetrievedDecember 5, 2007, from University of Phoenix rEsource HCS 438. Runk, D. (2007, December 24). Parents dont realize their kids are fat. MercuryNews (San Jose). Retrieved December 28, 2007, fromhttp://www.mercurynews.com/healthandscience/ci_7799918?nclick_check=1. Vieweg, V., Johnston, Fernandez, A., Pandurangi. A. (2007). Correlation between high risk obesity groups and low socioeconomic status in school children. Southern Medical Association. Retrieved January 12, 2008, from University of Phoenix library [EBSCOhost].

Methods To Prevent Barre In Knitted Fabric

Methods To Prevent Barre In Knitted Fabric In textile production, one of the most common and perplexing quality issues is barrà ©. The factors that can cause or contribute to barrà © are varied and diverse. For this reason, when a barrà © problem is detected, the skills of a sleuth may be required to expose the problem and eliminate its cause. Once a cause is identified, steps can be taken to minimize or eliminate the barrà ©, and better quality fabrics can be produced. This discussion will center on knitted fabrics. DISCUSSIONS The noun barrà © is defined by ASTM1 as an unintentional, repetitive visual pattern of continuous bars and stripes usually parallel to the filling of woven fabric or to the courses of circular knitted fabric. In a warp knit, barrà © normally runs in the length direction, following the direction of yarn flow. Barrà © can be caused by physical, optical, dye related differences in the yarn, geometric differences in the fabric structure, or by any combination of these differences. A barrà © streak can be one or several courses wide. A typical characteristic of barrà © is that it generally consists of stripes that repeat. Isolated or intermittent defects may or may not be barrà ©. 1 ASTM D123-96a Standard Terminology Relating to Textiles 1 Various aspects of barrà © are important for consideration and discussion. The first is the identification of barrà ©. Secondly, how can barrà © be analyzed? What are the causes of barrà ©, and finally, how can it be prevented? IDENTIFICATION OF BARRÉ The first step in a barrà © investigation is to observe and define the problem. Barrà © can be the result of physical causes that can usually be detected, or it can be caused by optical or dyeability differences that may be nearly impossible to isolate in the fabric. Barrà © analysis methods that help to discriminate between physical barrà © and barrà © caused by other reasons include Flat Table Examinations, Light Source Observation, and the Atlas Streak Analyzer. Flat Table Examination For a visual barrà © analysis, the first step is to lay a full-width fabric sample out on a table and view both sides from various angles. Generally, if the streaky lines run in the yarn direction that is in the course direction, apparent color differences can be seen by looking down at the fabric in a direct visual line with the yarn or course direction, and the defect can be positively identified as a barrà © defect. Viewing the fabric with a light source in the background will show if the barrà © is physical. Light Source Observation After completing an initial Flat Table Examination, a Light Source Examination may provide further useful information. Full width fabric samples should be examined 2 under two surface lighting conditions, ultraviolet (UV) and fluorescent light. Observations that should be made while viewing under lights are: 1. the frequency and width of the barrà ©, 2. whether the streaks are dark or light, and 3. the total length of pattern repeat. Ultraviolet light, commonly referred to as black light, allows the presence of mineral oils to be more easily detected, due to their radiant energy (glow). When observed under UV light, fabrics with streaks that exhibit glow suggest improper or insufficient preparation. A change in composition or content of oil/wax by the spinner or knitter without appropriate adjustments in scouring can create this problem. Fluorescent lighting simulates the mode of observation that is common to most inspection tables in mills and will highlight whether the barrà © is perceivable in an industry quality control setting. Atlas Streak Analyzer The function of the Atlas Streak Analyzer is to isolate barrà © caused by physical differences. A fabric swatch is combined with polystyrene sheet film, and the Atlas Streak Analyzer produces a plastic impression of a fabric surface by incorporating specific conditions of pressure and heat. The absence of color on the plastic impression ensures that only physical streak effects will be seen. The plastic impression is examined to determine whether the streak alignment matches the 3 streaks observed on the fabric. However, impressions made from spun yarns such as cotton can be difficult to read due to the inherent yarn variation characteristic of spun yarns. Also, a too rapid cooling of the test specimen after making an impression can produce a moirà © pattern. From a valid plastic impression, the barrà © source can be identified as: 1. physical with all streaks showing on the impression, 2. optical or dyeability variations where none of the color streaks are aligned on the impression, and 3. a combination of physical and dyeability differences where some streaks align with those on the impression, and some do not. Fabrics with combination causes present the greatest challenge for analysis. If the streak analyzer indicates the same barrà © pattern as seen in the fabric, then the barrà © stripes are physical in nature. This can relate to several physical causes such as yarn tensions, stitch length, yarn count, twist differences, etc. Yarn tension causes can be found by raveling adjacent courses and measuring the lengths of yarn removed from each course. If all the lengths raveled from the fabric are the same, the pieces can be weighed to determine if the yarn counts are the same. 4 If the plastic replica shows no stripes, then the barrà © is due to chemical causes or to light reflectance differences. Chemical causes relate to improper preparation, and light reflectance differences relate to non-uniform dyestuff penetration or reflectance. The next step is to remove the color and evaluate the stripped sample before re-dyeing to determine if the removal of dye was complete and if the barrà © is still present. An uneven or incomplete stripping can indicate an additional strip. If the color is stripped uniformly and the barrà © is gone, then the sample should be re-dyed. If after stripping and over dyeing the fabric no longer has barrà ©, then the barrà © was caused by improper preparation. If the barrà © remains, then the problem is related to optical or light reflectance problems. PHYSICAL BARRÉ ANALYSIS When the cause of barrà © is determined or presumed to be physical in nature, physical fabric analysis should be done. Physical barrà © causes are generally considered to be those which can be linked to yarn or machine differences. Methods of physical barrà © analysis include fabric dissection, microscopy, and the Roselon Knit Extension Tester. Fabric Dissection To perform accurate fabric dissection analysis, a fabric sample that contains several barrà © repetitions is required. First, the barrà © streak boundaries are marked by the placement of straight pins and/or felt markers. Individual yarns are removed from light and dark streak sections, and twist level, twist direction, and cut length 5 weight determinations are made and recorded. For reliable mean values to be established, data should be collected from at least two light/dark repeats. After compilation of yarn information, the numbers can be compared individually to adjacent yarns as well as by groupings of light and dark shades. Microscopy Microscopic examination is useful for verifying yarn-spinning systems. Yarns from different spinning systems can have different light reflectance and dye absorption properties resulting in barrà © when mixed. Ring-spinning produces yarn that is smooth with all fibers twisted in a tight helix. Open-end spinning produces yarn with wrapper fibers that form a belt around the diameter of the yarn at irregular intervals. Air jet spinning produces yarn with more wrapper fibers that form a continuous spiraling band around the inner fibers that are more parallel to the axis of the yarn. Microscopy can also reveal a shift in loop formation in knitted fabrics when twist direction (S and Z) differences are present. Roselon Knit Extension Tester2 Barrà © produced by knitting machinery is relatively common, is the easiest to see in the greige, and is the easiest to correct. Often uneven yarn tension during knitting may be a cause. To test for uneven tension, the Roselon Knit Extension Tester can be used. For this test, a fabric sample is cut and raveled to yield yarn samples from light and dark streak areas. The yarn ends are taped and clamped 2 Source: Spinlon Industries Incorporated, 18 S. Fifth Street, Quakertown, Pennsylvania 18951 6 to the tester. As each yarn is stretched to the maximum extension point, the points are plotted on graph paper. Comparisons are usually made visually rather than mathematically. CAUSES OF BARRÉ The varied and diverse causes of barrà © can generally be summed up in one word INCONSISTENCY. An inconsistency that leads to barrà © can originate in one or more of the following categories: ! fiber quality/raw material management, ! yarn formation/supply management, ! knitting processes, and ! preparation and dyeing techniques Fiber Quality/Raw Material Management 1. Failure to control fiber diameter (micronaire or denier) from laydown to laydown. 2. Too high a C.V. of micronaire in the laydown for a given mills opening line blending efficiency. 3. Failure to control the fiber color in the mix (grayness Rd, yellowness +b). 4. Failure to control maturity/fineness in a laydown 5. Most, if not all, fiber barrà © can be controlled by the above four items; however, under certain unusual circumstances, it may be beneficial to also select mixes using ultraviolet reflectance information for each bale of cotton. 7 Micronaire Average micronaire must be controlled within a laydown and from laydown to laydown. Controlling average micronaire in the laydown may not be sufficient to completely eliminate barrà ©. Other micronaire related causes of barrà © are: ! > 0.2 difference in micronaire. ! > 0.1 change in mix-to-mix average micronaire. ! > 12.0 % CV of micronaire within the laydown. It may be necessary to change the laydown averages periodically to make use of all the bales in the warehouse. This must be done slowly with no more than a 0.1 change in mix-to-mix averages. Figure 1 shows acceptable changes in micronaire from laydown to laydown. No barrà © from micronaire differences should show in knitted fabrics when yarns are mixed on the knitting machine from consecutive laydowns. However, if laydowns vary more than 0.1 micronaire, for example laydowns #1 (4.3 mic.) and #6 (4.6 mic.) in Figure 1, then barrà © is much more likely to occur. 8 Figure 1: Slowing Changing Micronaire Average in Laydown Acceptable Change in Micronaire From Laydown to Laydown3.53.63.73.83.94.04.14.24.34.44.51234567891011121314Laydown NumberMicronarie Figure 2 shows a high CV% in the micronaire for bales within a laydown. The laydown shown has 24 bales with an average of 4.1 micronaire and a CV% of 17.7. The change in micronaire from bale to bale is more than a 0.1 change. Also, the CV% is more than 12.0% and would probably result in barrà ©. High Micronaire CV% in Laydown3.53.73.94.14.34.54.7123456789101112131415161718192021222324Bale NumberMicronaireAvg. 4.1 CV% 17.7 * Figure 2: Results of Changing the Micronaire Average too Rapidly Max +/- 1.0 mic 9 Maturity and Fineness Although micronaire gives an indication of fiber maturity, it does not directly measure that property. Maturity and fineness related causes of barrà © include: ! Blending cotton from different growth areas or seed varieties. ! Immature fiber content such as white specks, neps, etc. Yarn Formation/Supply Even with proper fiber selection to reduce raw material effects on barrà ©, techniques in the opening, cleaning, blending, and carding areas can have an impact on barrà ©. These variations can occur at carding where different amounts of non-lint content removal from card to card can be a problem. Poor blending of fiber from opening through finisher drawing cannot be overlooked. In ring spinning, the running of different types of spindle tapes and the use of different cots or new and used cots mixed together on the same frame can create barrà ©. Faulty management in the spinning plant can result in the following yarn related causes of barrà ©: 1. Yarn count variations. 2. Yarn twist variation. 3. Wrong yarn size, color, blend level, twist direction. 4. Mixed yarn lots. 5. Mixed shipment dates of same dye lot. 10 6. Uneven waxing or oiling of yarn 7. Improper conditioning. Knitting Processes and Yarn Management The set-up and operation of a knitting machine is complex and requires precision settings to produce first quality goods. Machine related causes of barrà © include: 1. Different stitch settings (stitch lengths). 2. Improper tension at a feed. 3. Faulty cylinder or dial cam settings. 4. Malfunctioning of storage or tape feeders. 5. Improper threading of yarn. 6. Variations at take-down or spreader system. 7. Machine vibration. 8. Dirt, lint, and/or yarn fragments in the camming system, tricks, needles, or sinkers. 9. Variation in oil content. 10. Worn needles, which generally produce length direction streaks. 11. Uneven cylinder height needles (wavy barrà ©). 12. Worn cylinder and/or dial. Even with a properly set-up machine, barrà © can still occur at knitting due to poor yarn management. Examples of poor yarn management at knitting include: 11 1. Mixing yarns of different counts. 2. Mixing yarns from different spinning systems. 3. Mixing yarns with different blend levels. 4. Mixing yarns from different suppliers. 5. Mixing yarns with different twist level/twist direction. 6. Mixing yarns with different degrees of hairiness. 7. Mixing yarns with different amounts of wax. 8. Mercerization differences. 9. Excessive backwinding or abrasion during this process. 10. If yarns are conditioned, then each lot must be uniformly conditioned. Preparation and Dyeing Techniques Normally, dyehouses have standard preparation procedures and formulas that work very well in terms of removal of non-fibrous contaminants and natural fiber pigmentation. However, some fabrics can exhibit barrà © that is caused by either optical or dyeability issues. Often, the barrà © is not created in dyeing, but can be highlighted. In this scenario, the dyeing is not the cause but the messenger of the problem. Typically, barrà © is not a problem in whites, only in dyed fabrics. Therefore, if a fabric is known to have barrà ©, then that roll should be processed into a white. 12 Preparation can help mask barrà ©, but cannot and will not eliminate it. The cause of the barrà © must be eliminated for future rolls to be free of the defect. The scour and/or bleach procedure can be intensified to mask the barrà ©. This can be done by combinations of using a higher temperature or longer processing times. Usually the chemistry will remain the same; however, in some cases, it may have to be increased or changed. If any changes are made in the preparation procedure, the fabric and resultant shade will possibly change in whiteness, strength, and appearance. In fact, the whiteness will almost always change. If whiter, the old dye formula will need to be adjusted. The strength of the fabric may be affected to the point where it becomes a problem. Finally, the surface of the fabric may change so that it may not match previous lots. As a result of more aggressive preparation to cover barrà ©, it is important to evaluate such changes on small samples in the lab or a sample machine. Tension can play an integral role in not only the formation of the fabric, but also during preparation, dyeing, and finishing. As with all variables, it must be controlled to known parameters and be consistent. Any inconsistencies in tension could change the morphology of the cotton (i.e. during mercerization), level of dye pick- 13 up, or surface appearance (i.e. during mechanical finishing such as brushing or sanding). PREVENTION OF BARRÉ As discussed in the text, barrà © is caused by inconsistencies in materials, equipment, or processing. To prevent barrà © from occurring, consistency must be maintained through all phases of textile production. Stock yarns should be properly and carefully labeled to avoid mix-ups. Fugitive tints and/or marked cones can be useful for accurate yarn segregation. Inventory should be controlled on a first in/first out basis. All equipment should be properly maintained and periodically checked. In spinning and knitting before beginning full-scale production, sample dyeings can be done to check for barrà ©. Knit machine operators should be trained to look for barrà © as it occurs in the greige. If spotted, the machine should be stopped until the cause is eliminated. Salvaging a fabric lot with a barrà © problem may be possible through careful dye selection. Color differences can be masked by using shades with very low light reflectance (navy blue, black) or high light reflectance (light yellow, orange, or finished white). Dye suppliers should be able to offer assistance in this area. Also, if the cause of the barrà © is an uneven distribution of oil or wax, a more thorough preparation of the fabric before dyeing may result in more uniform dye coverage. 14 With close cooperation between production and quality control personnel, barrà © problems can be successfully analyzed and solved. Recommendations to minimize barrà © include: ! Knit an entire dye lot from the same knitting machine. ! Use only yarn from the same spinning lot. ! Use only from the same shipment date if possible. ! If yarn shipment dates must be mixed, then use consecutive shipment dates. ! Determine through laboratory analysis and experience if the preparation procedures are sufficient or can they be modified to eliminate the problem. ! Determine if some shades and dyestuffs are less susceptible to showing barrà ©, and apply those to problem fabrics. ! Make use of yarn/fabric analysis systems such as CYROS ®. ! Identify those rolls within a dye lot that have mixed yarn shipment dates so that it is known when the fabrics go through the dyehouse. ! Identify dye lots that have rolls from different yarn shipments before dyeing. CASE STUDY IN BARRÉ A 100% cotton, ring-spun single jersey style T-shirt is knitting in production with a yarn that does not have a barrà © problem. This style has been knitting for numerous days and no more of the yarn is available for creeling on the machine as the yarns are knitting out. Some yarn packages are skinners and others are full five-pound packages. The machine is 24-inch diameter with 80 feeds. 15 When the new yarn is creeled onto one of the 80 positions, the mixing of yarn shipment dates begins to take place. For this discussion, we will assume that this new yarn will cause barrà © when mixed with the old yarn. Once all positions are knitting the new yarn, there will be no barrà ©. How many rolls of fabric will have barrà © when both these yarns are present in the rolls? If the knitter is making 50 pound rolls, then each yarn package will supply 1/80th of the 50-pound roll or 0.625 pounds of yarn. Therefore, the new yarn will make 8.0 rolls of fabric with barrà © (5-pound package divided by 0.625 pounds per package for a 50 pound roll). It is important to realize that while this new package is knitting, other old yarn positions on the creel are also being replaced by new yarns. By the time the first new package has knitted out, all feeds will be using the new yarn. When the last old package is replaced and all positions have new yarn, the barrà © will disappear. Often, many machines will be knitting the same style. If ten machines are knitting this style and are using the old yarn and new yarns are placed on these 80 feed machines, then the total number of rolls knitted with barrà © will be 80. A total of 4,000 pounds of fabric will be made with barrà ©. If the style in question weighs 5.8 ounces per linear yarn, then a total of 11,035 yards of fabric will be made. Further, if it can be assumed that each yard of fabric can make 1.2 shirts, then a total of 13,240 defective T-shirts will be made. This is 1,103 dozen 16 garments. If the cost per shirt is $2.05 per unit, then a loss of $27,142 plus is realized. If open-end yarn was used for this case study instead of ring-spun yarns, then 8-pound packages of yarn could be used. This would result in 128 rolls containing 6,400 pounds and 17,655 yards of fabric. From this, 21,186 T-shirts (1766 dozens) would have been made. Based on a cost per shirt of $1.86, the loss would be $39,405. The result is that bigger packages mean bigger losses. The best methods to reduce the possibility of this catastrophe are listed below: 1. When mixing yarn shipment dates of only one week, try to reduce the number of machines using the old and new yarns. 2. As more machines are expending the old yarn, consolidate the old packages to fewer machines. This means removing the yarns from one creel and using them on other machines that are still knitting the old yarn. 3. Knit dye lots from a single machine if possible. 4. When a roll is known to have mixed yarns, a laboratory dyeing should be done on a swatch from the roll to determine if barrà © is present. If not, then proceed as normal. If barrà © is present, then the roll should be processed in 17 shades that are not known to be barrà © sensitive or prepared with more aggressive chemistry. CONCLUSIONS It is evident that barrà © is a problem that results from inconsistencies and is a result of poor management of fiber, yarn, and/or related knitting processes. The spinner, the knitter, and the dyer must communicate and work as a team to reduce the potential for barrà © to occur. A well planned and executed system of monitoring the spinning, knitting, dyeing, and finishing systems in the mill can provide for defect free fabrics. 18

Howard Becker Criminology | A Theory Analysis

Howard Becker Criminology | A Theory Analysis With close reference to a selection from your research/reading (minimum 3 references by or about your criminologist), critically assess the contribution made by your author to criminological knowledge. You should focus closely on how he /she developed critiqued or applied theory. INTRODUCTION Howard Becker is hailed as the founder of modern labeling theory. He also developed the term moral entrepreneur to describe persons in power who campaign to have certain deviant behavior outlawed (Becker, 1963). He claims that many laws are established for such purposes, and that behavior that is defined as criminal is dynamic and changes throughout time. Therefore, the actual criminal behavior is irrelevant to the theory. What really matters is which outlaws are arrested and processed by the criminal justice system (Becker, 1963). As a result of the belief that personal and societal factors do not contribute to motivations for criminal behavior there has been little study of the criminal him/herself and the aforesaid factors. As one might expect, this aspect of Labeling Theory is still being debated. There is one exception to this belief, however most labeling theorists claim that the system is biased toward the lower class, which constitutes the overwhelming majority of arrests and convictions within the American criminal justice system (Wellford, 1975). This Labeling Theory, found in Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963), is perhaps his most important and influential contribution to sociology. Influenced by Cooleys looking-glass self, Meads theories on the internalization of the self, and Lemerts social constructionism, Becker explains that deviance is based on the reactions and responses of others to an individuals acts. The label of deviant is applied to an individual when others observe their behavior and react to it by labeling that person as deviant. No particular act is inherently deviant until a group with socially powerful statuses or positions label it as such (Becker, 1963). This theoretical approach to deviance has influenced criminology, gender, sexuality and identity research. This work became the manifesto of the labeling theory movement among sociologists. In his opening, Becker writes: social groups create deviance by making rules whose infraction creates deviance, and by applying those roles to particular people and labeling them as outsiders. From this point of view, deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by other of rules and sanctions to an offender. The deviant is one to whom that label has been successfully applied; deviant behavior is behavior that people so label.[8] While society uses the stigmatic label to justify its condemnation, the deviant actor uses it to justify his actions. He wrote: To put a complex argument in a few words: instead of the deviant motives leading to the deviant behavior, it is the other way around, the deviant behavior in time produces the deviant motivation.[9] INFLUENCES Beckers theory evolved during a period of social and political power struggle that was amplified within the world of the college campus (Pfohl, 1994). Liberal political movements were embraced by many of the college students and faculty in America (Pfohl 1994). Howard Becker harnessed this liberal influence and adjusted Lemerts labeling theory and its symbolic interaction theoretical background. The labeling theory outlined in Outsiders is recognized as the prevailing social reaction approach by Lemert as well as most other sociologists (www.sonoma.edu). Beckers approach has its roots in the symbolic interaction foundation of Cooley and Mead, and the labeling influences of Tannenbaum and Lemert. Charles Cooleys Human Nature and the Social Order (1902) examines the personal perception of oneself through studies of children and their imaginary friends. Cooley develops the theoretical concept of the looking glass self, a type of imaginary sociability (Cooley 1902). People imagine the view of themselves through the eyes of others in their social circles and form judgements of themselves based on these imaginary observations (Cooley 1902). The main idea of the looking glass self is that people define themselves according to societys perception of them (www.d.umn.edu). Cooleys ideas, coupled with the works of Mead, are very important to labeling theory and its approach to a persons acceptance of labels as attached by society. George Meads theory is less concerned with the micro-level focus on the deviant and more concerned with the macro-level process of separating the conventional and the condemned (Pfohl 1994). In Mind, Self, and Society (1934), Mead describes the perception of self as formed within the context of social process (Wright, 1984). The self is the product of the minds perception of social symbols and interactions (www.d.umn.edu ). The self exists in objective reality and is then internalized into the conscious (Wright 1984). The idea of shifting the focus away from the individual deviant and looking at how social structure affects the separation of those persons considered unconventional has a great influence on how Becker approaches labeling theory. Social Pathology (1951) outlines Edwin Lemerts approach to what many consider the original version of labeling theory. Lemert, unhappy with theories that take the concept of deviance for granted, focuses on the social construction of deviance (Lemert 1951). Lemert (1951) describes deviance as the product societys reaction to an act and the affixing of a deviant label on the actor. Social Pathology details the concepts of primary and secondary deviance. According to Lemert (1951), primary deviance is the initial incidence of an act causing an authority figure to label the actor deviant. This initial labeling of a deviant act will remain primary as long as the actor can rationalize or deal with the process as a function of a socially acceptable role (Lemert, 1951). If the labeled deviant reacts to this process by accepting the deviant label, and further entrenches his/herself in deviant behavior, this is referred to as secondary deviance (Lemert, 1951). Lemert considers the causes of p rimary deviance as fluid, and only important to researchers concerned with specific social problems at a certain time. In the years following Social Pathology, Lemert argues for the decriminalization of victimless crimes, advocates pre-trial diversion programs, and has backed away labeling determinism (Wright, 1984). BECKERS LABELLING THEORY Howard Beckers approach to the labeling of deviance, as described in Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963), views deviance as the creation of social groups and not the quality of some act or behavior. Becker (1963) criticizes other theories of deviance for accepting the existence of deviance and by doing so, accept the values of the majority within the social group. According to Becker (1963), studying the act of the individual is unimportant because deviance is simply rule breaking behavior that is labeled deviant by persons in positions of power. The rule breaking behavior is constant, the labeling of the behavior varies (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) describes rules as the reflection of certain social norms held by the majority of a society, whether formal or informal. Enforced rules, the focus of Beckers (1963) approach, are applied differentially and usually facilitate certain favorable consequences for those who apply the label. In short, members of the rule-maki ng society may label rule breaking behavior deviant depending on the degree of reaction over time (Becker, 1963). Becker (1963) views those people that are likely to engage in rule breaking behavior as essentially different than members of the rule-making or rule-abiding society. Those persons who are prone to rule-breaking behavior see themselves as morally at odds with those members of the rule-abiding society (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) uses the term outsider to describe a labeled rule-breaker or deviant that accepts the label attached to them and view themselves as different from mainstream society. Deviants may consider themselves more outside than others similarly labeled (Becker 1963). Deviant outsiders might view those rule making or abiding members of society as being the outsiders of their social group (Becker, 1963). The final step in the creation of a career delinquent involves the movement of a rule breaker into a deviant subculture (Becker, 1963). The affiliation of the labeled deviant with an organized provides the person with moral support and a self-justifying rationale (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) describes how those involved in an organized crime may learn new forms of deviance through differential association. Becker (1963) also focuses on those in positions of power and authority that make and enforce the rules. Rules are created by a moral entrepreneur, a person that takes the initiative to crusade for a rule that would right a society evil (Becker 1963). The moral entrepreneurs motive may be to elevate the social status of those members of society below him/her (Becker 1963). The success of the crusade may lead to the entrepreneur to become a professional rule creator (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) states that the success of each moral crusade brings along with it a new group of outsiders, and a new responsibility of an enforcement agency. According to Becker (1963), the enforcement of societys rules is an enterprising act. The enforcement of a rule occurs when those that want a rule enforced, usually to some sort of gain to their personal interests, bring the rule infraction to the attention of the public (Becker 1963). The rule infraction, brought to the attention of those in positions of authority, is dealt with punitively by the entrepreneur (Becker, 1963). The enforcement of the rule may involve the mediation of conflicts between many different interest groups by those in positions of power (Becker, 1963). The enforcers themselves may have a moral crusade to stop crime, but most engage in the process strictly as a part of their occupation (Becker 1963). Rule enforcers use the process of formal enforcement to satisfy two major interests, the justification of their occupation and the winning of respect from the people he/she patrols (Becker, 1963). The enforcer is armed with a great deal of discretion and may use hi s/her power to label an innocent person in order to gain respect (Becker, 1963). The misuse of labeling powers by enforcers may create a deviant out of a person who otherwise would not be prone to rule breaking behavior (Becker, 1963). Beckers work pays particular attention to the way society reacts to people with criminal labels. He proposes that this label becomes a persons master status, meaning that this is a constant label, affecting and over-riding how others will view them. The status people use to identify and classify a person will always be that of a criminal. Any other statuses a person occupies are no longer heeded. A person could be a parent, employee, spouse, etc., but the first and major status that will come to mind to other people and themselves is that of the criminal (Becker, 1963). Beckers Outsiders (1963) uses two cases to illustrate his approach to labeling theory. Becker (1963) analyzes the history of marijuana laws in the United States and how individuals progress into the recreational use of the drug. Becker (1963) chooses to analyze marijuana because the progression of use can be observed. The first time user of marijuana finds the experience as somewhat unpleasant, but as the user imitates peers he/she learns to perceive the effects of marijuana as enjoyable (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) identifies three stages of marijuana use: the beginner, the occasional user, and the regular user. The three self-explanatory categories of marijuana users can be manipulated through the use of social controls (Becker, 1963). Control of the marijuana supply has both positive and negative effects (Becker, 1963). A diminished supply of marijuana may lead to a decreased use of the drug among some people, but it may also drive a user to associate with an organized group of deviants to obtain marijuana (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) believes that while control of marijuana supply is an important social control, it does not deter use. The best way to deter a user is to control his/her individual moral view of marijuana use. A marihuana user is labelled to be deviant as it contravenes the rules and norms of the society. Becker researched on marihuana users and used it in supporting his labelling theory . Becker notes that this deviant behaviour is based on the given kind of behaviour as an end product of a sequence of social experiences during which the person acquires a comprehension of the meaning of the behaviour, the perceptions and judgements of objects and situations, all of which makes the activity possible and desirable. An individual will only be able to use marihuana for pleasure if he goes through a process of learning to conceive of it as an object where he is able to recognise the effects and connect them with drug use; to inhale in a way that produce real upshot; and learning to enjoy the sensation he comprehends. Once the ability to achieve enjoyment is acquired, he will continue to use it. (continuing usage of the marihuana is the secondary deviant) Considerations of morality and appropri ateness, occasioned by the rejoinder of society, may hamper and impede use, but use persists to be a possibility in terms of the notion of the drug. The act will only be impossible when the ability to achieve the enjoyment is vanished, through a revolutionize of users conception of the drug occasioned by certain kind of experience with it. Becker (1963) uses a participant observation study of the lives of Chicago dance musicians to illustrate the social life of a deviant subculture. Although dance musicians as a group are law-abiding, their unconventional lifestyles lead them to feel as outsiders (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) describes how being a dance musician involves a change in attitudes and opinions in order to conform to the subculture. The culture of the dance musician is rich in its own language and gestures (Becker, 1963). Many of the dance musicians live a conventional family life during the day and change into their role as musician at night (Becker, 1963). Another aspect of labelling theory in which Becker outlines as problematic, is the concept of morality. He questions a situation where the researchers sympathies should lie. He contemplates on whether one should side with the underdog or simply judge criminal behaviour as inherently wrong? He stresses the sociological difficulty of this decision. He claims that the researcher, whether taking either side, will be accused of taking a one-sided and distorted view, but how is it possible to see the situation from both sides simultaneously (Becker, 1963)? Despite many contributions, the evaluation of labelling theorists is normally considered with an excessive amount of criticism. Becker concludes Outsiders (1963) by emphasizing the need for empirical research of his approach to labeling theory. Social scientists produced a vast amount of literature in response to Beckers request. Much of the research involving labeling theory directly reflects Beckers approach, while others use Becker (1963) as a foundation for theory development. APPLICATION Gideon Fishman tests Beckers labeling theory by studying a sample of midwestern juvenile delinquents (Friday and Stewart, 1977). Fishmans research design measures negative self-perception and whether this self-perception affects future delinquency (Friday and Stewart, 1977). The results of Fishmans study show that secondary deviance is not universal and individuals react to deviant labels in different ways (Friday and Stewart, 1977). A popular application of Beckers labeling theory (1963) is in the area of mental health. Thomas Scheff embraces Beckers approach to labeling and describes how people are labeled mentally ill in order to explain certain rule-breaking behavior that society cant categorize (Holstein, 1993; www.sscf.ucsb.edu). Scheff is not concerned with occasional acts of deviance, rather it is the residual or episodic deviance that often falls under the label of mental illness (Wright, 1984; Pfohl, 1994). People labeled as mentally ill adopt the behaviors of the stereotypical mental patient as portrayed through the mass media (Wright 1984). Scheff argues that those who express the stereotypical behavior of the mentally ill are rewarded by enterprising psychology professionals (Wright, 1984; Pfohl, 1994). According to Scheff, everybody expresses the popular symptoms of mental illness at some point in their life and labels are attached to those without power (Wright 1984). Scheff provides empirical evid ence in the form of several studies of the process of mental hospital commitment (Holstein, 1993; Pfohl, 1994; Wright, 1983; www.sscf.ucsb.edu). Many social scientists challenge Scheffs arguments on theoretical and empirical grounds. James A. Holstein (1993) attacks Scheffs approach for focusing on the deviant and not the moral entrepreneurs that attach the labels. Florence Ridlon (1988) criticizes Scheffs work for being deterministic and argues for a less causal model to explain mental afflictions such as alcoholism. Walter Gove (1980), an adamant critic of Scheff, believes that Scheff should not dismiss the influence of psychopathological variables on mental illness. Gove (1980) also criticizes Scheffs empirical methodology and operations. Edwin Schur modifies Beckers labeling theory in Labeling Deviant Behavior (1971) by shifting some of the focus to the individual deviant. Schur (1971) also theorizes that as persons labeled deviant gain power and organize, they progress in social definition from an uprising, social movement, and civil war to the formation of a mainstream political party. Schur argues in Labeling Women Deviant (1983) that women in America are automatically labeled deviant by the male-dominated society. Women accept the deviant label as their master status and limit their life chances (Schur, 1983). CRITICISMS Beckers theory of labeling, while maintaining a great deal of popularity today, does encounter several criticisms (Pfohl 1994; www.mpcc.cc.ne.us ; Ridlon 1988). Many sociologists view labeling theory as untestable and, by definition, not a true theory (Ridlon 1988). Becker (1963) acknowledges that his labeling theory is a theoretical approach, not a true theory, and that sociologists should attempt to establish empirical tests for his approach. Another major criticism of labeling theory is its failure to explain primary deviance (www.mpcc.cc.ne.us). Both Lemert (1951) and Becker (1963) believe that primary deviance is influenced by many different and changing variables and the research of primary deviance causes is futile. Pfohl (1994) details the criticism of many sociologists that labeling theory is causal or deterministic. Becker (1963) qualifies his approach to social reaction theory by stating that some groups of rule-breakers may be able to choose alternative courses of action. Beckers immensely popular views were also subjected to a barrage of criticism, most of it blaming him for neglecting the influence of other biological, genetic effects and personal responsibility. In a later 1973 edition of his work, he answered his critics. He wrote that while sociologists, while dedicated to studying society, are often careful not to look too closely. Instead, he wrote: I prefer to think of what we study as collective action. People act, as Mead and Blumer have made clearest, together. They do what they do with an eye on what others have done, are doing now, and may do in the future. One tries to fit his own line of action into the actions of others, just as each of them likewise adjusts his own developing actions to what he sees and expects others to do.[10] Francis Cullen reported in 1984 that Becker was probably too generous with his critics. After 20 years, his views, far from being supplanted, have been corrected and absorbed into an expanded structuring perspective.[11] From a logical standpoint there are flaws within the main points of labeling theory. Initially the theory states that no acts are inherently criminal (Wellford, 1975). Meaning that acts are only criminal when society has deemed them as such. The implications of this being that criminal law is dynamic and ever-changing, differing from society to society. But if this is true then why are certain acts illegal within the majority of the civilized world? Murder, rape, arson, armed robbery. All these are considered crimes in any society or country one could care to name. Also the theory claims that for a criminal to be successfully labeled an audience must be present to provide a reaction to the crimes committed. Does this mean that if a murder is committed where the killer has successfully avoided anyones suspicion that the act is then not criminal and the killer will not think of him/herself as such? Its probable that the murderers socialization and/or value system could initialize self-labeling, but the theory clearly states the labeling must come from a 3rd party (Hagan, 1973). For the sake of argument, if self labeling is possible and a person has obtained a self-initialized criminal master status/label, how do they react to it? Do they become criminals or try to rationalize as stated by Foster, Dinitz, and Reckless (Foster Dinitz Reckless, 1972)? Beckers labelling theory has also drawn to a considerable criticism. One of such is that his labelling theory failed to answer the etiological question about primary deviance, for example: What causes deviance? Jack Gibbs pointed out that the theory failed to provide ample answers to three etiological questions: Why does the prevalence of a particular act vary from one population to the next? Why do some persons commit the act while others do not? Why is the act in question considered deviant and criminal in some societies but not in others? This clearly shows that labelling theory is mere humanistic-antideterministic or voluntaristic hypothesis only . Then again, recent activists of the theory beginning to shift the labelling theory into a more scientific, deterministic one, and this approach is apparent in empirical studies of the secondary deviance. Instead of describing the process of interaction between labellers and the labelled that leads to secondary deviance, these revisioni sts defined, operationalised or measure labelling as a causal variable of secondary deviation. CONCLUSION Social scientists disagree on the future of labeling theory. Pfohl (1994) recognizes labeling theory as very influential in todays studies of deviance. Some social scientists view labeling theory as declining in importance due to lack of empirical support and a conservative political climate (www.mpcc.cc.ne.us ). Becker (1963) believes the future of labeling theory lies in the widespread empirical study of deviance and kinds of deviance. Beckers analysis gives us a dynamic account of how a person can be funneled into a deviant career by labeling processes. This is also a compellingly humanistic theory of deviance. We can identify and sympathize with the deviant who has been the victim of labeling processes, even to the extent of realizing that it could happen to any of us. In this and many other respects, Beckers micro-relativistic approach to deviance theory contrasts markedly with normative theories that emphasize in a detached, objective way the fundamental differences between deviants and nondeviants. If Becker makes us understand the human implications of reactions to deviance, then he has accomplished one of his major theoretical goals. In attempting to evaluate the contribution of the labelling theorists to the study of the sociology of deviance, it can be said that it depends on how the theory is viewed. If the theory is considered as a theory, with all the achievements and obligations that go with the title, then its flaws are many. Yet if, as Backer suggests, we attempt to consider the theory as it were intended, that is, as a mere way of looking at deviance, then the contribution can be said to be weighty, as it opened up a whole new study of the individual after he has committed an act of deviance. At this point it must be mentioned that labelling theorists do not merely consider the after-effects of the deviant act, as it is sometimes suggested. Becker, for example, considers the individual and how he begins to smoke marijuana. As Schur sums up, labelling theory is not a revolutionary new approach to the analysis of social problems but rather a recording or emphasis of such analysis, a reordering that may hel p us to view deviance and control in a realistic, comprehensive, and sociologically meaningful light. As such, one can conclude that labelling theory continues in its usefulness, as long as deviant behaviour continues to exist.

A Look into the Life of Charlotte Perkins Gilman and ?The Yellow Wall-p

â€Å"The Yellow Wall-paper† is an amazing story that demonstrates how close-minded the world was a little over a hundred years ago. In the late eighteen hundreds, women were seen as personal objects that are not capable of making a mark in the world. If a woman did prove to be a strong intellectual person and had a promising future, they were shut out from society. Charlotte Perkins Gilman wrote her stories from experience, but added fictional twists along the way to make her stories interesting. Charlotte Perkins Gilman grew up in a broken home without the presence of her father. Charlotte eventually moved away from her home with her mother and sister. Charlotte tried to keep in contact with her father, but he did not want any part of the contact. Being rejected by her father, and not receiving any affection from her cold-hearted mother set the tone for the way she would live her life. After one failed marriage with a child, Charlotte did not believe that there was much left for her. Charlotte took her emotions and construed them into a positive thing, her writing. Just like the woman in the story, â€Å"The Yellow Wall-paper†, Charlotte was sick. The doctors prescribed the â€Å"rest cure† for Charlotte. This prescription meant that she had to stay in bed for weeks on end, and had to limit her intellectual activities (Gilman 831). Charlotte was also instructed to live as much of a domestic life as she could. The doctors and her husband wanted her to stay home to cook, clean, and tend to their child. Staying in your own house, in your own bed for that long of a time would drive any person the slightest bit of crazy. During this time is when Charlotte Perkins Gilman wrote, â€Å"The Yellow Wall-paper†. â€Å"The Yellow Wall-paper† portrays realism in its finest. Realism is defined as the representation in art or literature of objects, actions, or social conditions as they actually are, without idealization or presentation in abstract form (dictionary.com). It must have been easy for Charlotte to write this literary work. Not only did Charlotte have all the time in the world, but she was also a feminist (Hudak). When a person has enough time, and a just cause, wonderful literary works can happen. There is no better way to get emotions, ideas, and worries out into society than writing about what you believe in. This story is almost an autobiographical account of Charlotte Perk... ...estic work when she could. Not being able to express her inner feelings made her want to write everything down so much more. Jane then realized that she was being oppressed by the men in her life. Jane was not a strong woman, so she drove herself insane just to escape the reality that she was in. If the story of, â€Å"The Yellow Wall-paper† would have continued from its finishing point, I believe that Jane would have went even more mad and most likely would have killed herself to escape her own self-torture. Much like how Charlotte Perkins Gilman committed suicide in her own life. â€Å"The next year, suffering from breast cancer and convinced that her productive life was over, she committed suicide with chloroform she had long been accumulating† (Gilman 832). Charlotte Perkins Gilman was a lonely, insane woman, but her creativity got her through some hard times. Writing â€Å"The Yellow Wall-paper† helped to created an outlet for Charlotte’s personal emotions. Charlotte and the main character of the story, Jane, are one and the same. After reading background information on Charlotte and reading â€Å"The Yellow Wall-paper†, it’s obvious that Charlotte was writing about what she knew; insanity.

red scare :: essays research papers fc

The documents presented here are designed to be used in classes about Pacific Northwest history or US history. Although the documents deal specifically with events in Washington state, they are still potentially useful for a course about US history as a whole. As historian Richard Fried has observed, "'McCarthyism' is so often characterized in abstract terms that its meaning remains fuzzy. To sense the emotional bite of the Communist issue and to understand both how it affected life for those who ran afoul of it and how it shaped the nation's political culture, it is useful to look at specific cases." These documents allow students to explore such specific cases. Section II is a rather lengthy essay which tries to place the Cold War and Red Scare into historical perspective. It also analyzes the effect of the Cold War on Washington's economy and describes the major events of the Red Scare in Washington state. Much of this information is presented very briefly in a timeline in Section III. Teachers may wish to distribute photocopies of Section III to orient students to the main events of Cold War and Red Scare and to allow the students to place the documents in a chronological framework. Teachers may also with to distribute copies of the glossary in Section IV to familiarize students with Cold War terminology. The bibliography in Section V suggests books and videocassettes about the Cold War and Red Scare that teachers may find useful. The documents in Section VII can be used in a vast number of ways. Section VI offers suggestions for in-class and homework assignments based on the documents. The concordance in Section VII not only lists the source of each document, but also offers some possible discussion questions about many of the documents. II. The Cold War and Red Scare in Washington: Historical Context The Cold War created many aspects of modern Washington. Military spending sustained Washington's rapid economic growth after WW II. Although federal hydropower projects and WW II had initially industrialized Washington state, the struggle against the Soviets ensured that federal money continued to pour into the state. The Cold War left a physical legacy across the state that can still be seen today. Military bases were created and expanded. The production of plutonium at Hanford created radioactive waste that will exist for thousands of years. Even Seattle's most famous icon—the Space Needle—is a concrete monument to one aspect of the Cold War, the space race.

Prejudice In West Side Story :: essays research papers

In the book West Side Story by Arthur Laurents there were many prejudices. Prejudice is a favoring or dislike of something without just grounds or before sufficient knowledge. There were prejudices in West Side Story that had to do with the types of people, their races and sex. Sometimes prejudice can be in small doses and can be meaningless, other times prejudice can be very serious and cause death. Prejudice was the theme of this story, there are many examples.For instance, an act of prejudice in West Side Story was the Puerto Ricans disliking the Americans and vice versa. The PR's diskliked the Americans because the first day, Bernardo (leader of PR gang) was jumped by one of the Jets. The Jets wouldn't let the PR's come on their turf, such as Doc's store. The PR's were not wanted in the U.S. and they were given a hard time. The American's were prejudiced of the Puerto Ricans, so they did cruel things to them.Another act of prejudice in West Side Story was the Jets having prejudice against Anybody's joining their gang. They told her to go wear a dress, she wittily replied that she had scabby knees. She told them that she lurks in the shadows and even provided the Jets with important information. She had a haircut like a boy's and wore boy clothes. This could be a prejudice beyond having a girl in a gang, it could be that they have a prejudice against homosexuals, the fact that the stereotype of lesbians play a role in the character of Anybody's.There were little prejudices passed around in West Side Story. Some people saw through that, some people tried to stop that foolish behavior. Glad Hand, the administrator of the dance, he tried to get everybody to stop acting that way. Glad Hand made everybody split up across the room, and then whoever was directly across from each other danced together. Doc tried to stop the gangs from having the war council, he told them basically to grow up and stop their childishness. Doc and Glad Hand couldn't stop the fighting. Tony saw through the prejudice though, he loved one of the PR's and when the Jets found out, they were ashamed. Tony's love for Maria was so real, he didn't care what happened. He died.Prejudice plagues this world now and forever, as long as there is a difference in people there will discrimination and prejudice.

Living in a dysfunctional family Essay

â€Å"I have learned that if one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life he has imagined, he will meet with a success unexpected in common hours†. These were the inspiring words of a famous writer and philosopher, Henry David Thoreau that has been etched in my heart as I have envisioned and prepared myself to follow the path that would lead me towards the achievement of my dreams. Living in a dysfunctional family and belonging to the minority are challenges that may either strengthen a person’s character or break a person’s life. Growing up without the full support and presence of my parents was not easy but these circumstances did not dampen my spirit. Instead, being in this situation has awakened my consciousness and I learned to be independent and responsible at an early age. Being the eldest among my siblings, I also became protective and nurturing and I managed to provide a balance between my studies and my responsibilities. At school, I developed a strong interest in subjects like Mathematics, English and History and I have engaged in various sports activities, e. g. soccer, basketball and hockey. Academics and sports have strengthened my mind, body and spirit and have taught me the importance of discipline, team work and camaraderie. In addition, my grandmother, whom I have lived with in the last few years, has instilled the value of obedience, hard work and integrity in my heart. These teachings and qualities will serve as my guiding principle in preparation for a career in law enforcement. Protecting lives and properties and preserving peace are part of my goals in life. I also want to make a difference in the lives of the youth who are lost and who find security in the company of those who violate the law. When I become a law enforcer, I would bridge the gap between my colleagues and the Hispanics and other immigrants so a relationship of trust will be built and strengthened. My entry in the university will not only allow me to interact with people with diverse cultural background. Most importantly, earning a degree in law enforcement will provide me with the skills and knowledge in reaching my dreams and in making a difference in the lives of the youth offenders.

Peloponnesian War (Research Pap.)

DESTINED FOR WAR Jarod Bleibdrey, M. S. C. J January 20, 2013 As humans have evolved into vast, complex civilizations, a growing trend became notable to mankind, which was corruption. Speculating that Herodotus was the first true historian, and Thucydides was the second, then the Peloponnesian War would be the first form of government corruption in which war became inevitable. At this point, the war varies in perception of the two great alliances, and why the war was even fought.This essay will demonstrate how the Peloponnesian War stood as a great example of how superpowers become thrust into battle with one another, based upon corruption, vast difference in lifestyles, and the urging from smaller entities. Focus will be on how both Athens and Sparta’s political, social and diplomatic systems forced them into battle, but the battles themselves are of little concern in this essay. It was the â€Å"behind the scenes† events that can best explain and summarize the war.Wit h the focus laying upon the causes of the war, it becomes important to remember that, what began as a great alliance, turned into the devastation of Greece and allowed the conquest of Philip of Macedonia to commence. Let us begin with the culture of Athens and Sparta, in an attempt to explain the vast contrast within the two city-states. The Spartans were obsessed with their military superiority, while the Athenians were interested in comfort and culture. Granted, the Athenian Navy was the strongest maritime force of the age, but more on this when we get to corruption.The culture of Athens and Sparta was different to their core; everything from political to daily living conflicted, causing them to become competitive and distrustful of each other. The Spartan government was a very complex structure, which consisted of a dual monarchy, a warrior assembly (apella), a council of elders (gerousia) and the ephors. Herodotus claims that the two royal families of Sparta, which consisted of the Agiadai and Eurypontidai families, shared a common ancestry and could trace their lineage back to Herakles himself.Thus making the royal families by blood lines, which would be unable to be displaced, as opposed to that of military power, which could be overthrown. The kings were limited in their power as they only held command of the military. They had no influence in the laws which were left to the apella, gerousia and ephors. The apella was composed of every Spartan warrior who had reached the age of thirty. The apella’s primary functions included electing members for the gerousia, and the ephors. The apella held the ultimate power on matters of legislation and policy.The manner in which they voted was through a process of acclamation. Above the apella was the gerousia, which consisted of the two kings and twenty-eight members of Spartan warriors who had reached the age of sixty. The members elected into the gerousia served a life term, and could only be removed by the ephors. The true nature of the gerousia is unknown, but Herodotus wrote the gerousia could serve as a court to hear capital cases. The last political body of the Spartans and possibly the most important is that of the ephors. The five ephors were freely elected each year and attended much of the daily business of Sparta.Each month the kings and the ephors would exchange oaths, to which each pledged to uphold the position of the other. The ephors were the true controlling body of the Spartans, and thus resembled an oligarchy rule. It was this oligarchic rule of the ephors which insisted on the agoge, and placed Sparta into a militaristic focused city-state. The government in Athens followed a very different course than Sparta. Athenian citizens had the duty to vote or hold office. During the 6th century B. C. , Athens instituted a unique form of government in which the citizens had a direct say in the election of leaders.This early form of democracy was lead by Cleisthenes who creat ed the Assembly, which comprised every citizen of Athens, and the Council of Five Hundred. This Council was comprised of fifty representatives from each of the Ten Tribes of Athens. This ensured each tribe had an equal say in the creation of laws and election of leaders. To ensure equality, the law was set that each member of the fifty from one of the ten tribes must not be related, nor hold the same occupation as any other member†¦to ensure there was no nepotism or common vestment.The Council of five hundred represented the legislative body of Athens. The executive power was placed within the Strategus, in which 10 generals were elected into office for one year terms, of these 10 strategi, one was elected as leader of the group and served as commander in chief. The judicial power of Athens was placed with the Areopagus, or the Supreme Court. This body was made up, primarily, of wealthy land owners who had been elected as archons (judges) in the past. This legislative, executiv e and judicial branched government is reminiscing to all modern day democracies.The major deviation from modern times being that Athens was a direct democracy, in which the citizens had to be present to vote. Each branch of the government was capable of vetoing one another, thus establishing a check and balance system. It was also customary to expel from the country, any speaker who became too powerful, in a process called ostracism. Every year the Council voted and one member would be ostracized (banished) for a period of ten years. Athens would vote by tossing colored rocks into a giant pot.This would be a very time consuming process as each topic would have orators speak on its behalf, and upon conclusion of the debate the voting would begin. The rocks were either white or black, where white stood for approve and black represented a denial. When choosing a person to ostracize, broken shards of pottery called ostrakon would be used with the intended person of exile name, etched on to the shard. After all votes were made, the numbers of each were tallied and the victor/ostracized proclaimed. This would take a long time and thus the Athenians prided themselves upon their dedication and attention to detail.This could have lead modern historians to view the Spartans as impulsive, and the Athenians as cautious. This has been a major misconception, as evident by the speech given by King Archidamus of Sparta, in which the Spartan King asked the council to exercise reason and caution before declaring war upon Athens. In turn, Pericles himself urged the Athenians to war against a dominant land army. Another difference between the two great city-states was their daily living and how it affected the trade in the two cities.The Athenian economy was heavily dependent upon foreign trade and because of their location on the Aegean Sea, maritime became life, and the sea meant life and livelihood. While trade was a necessity in Athens, Sparta relied upon their slave labor. Th e Helots (slaves) of Sparta were the driving force of Spartan agriculture, and allowed for Spartan’s excessive free time to translate into their dedication to the agoge. Since Sparta was cut off from the rest of Greece by two mountain ranges there was little trade being conducted, and thus alliances ere not a suitable strong point of Sparta. The Spartans rarely traveled from their city-state or allowed foreigners into it, thus making the only true vantage of joining Sparta, being that of their reputation in battle. With Sparta being an isolationist state, their perception would have been considered truth and fact, no matter what was written of them. One of the greatest differences between the Athenian and the Spartans regarded their attitude towards women. The role of women in the Greek city states of Athens and Sparta sheds light upon the acceptable values of their time.Spartan women had similar equality to their male counterpart (except for voting rights). Spartan women did little housework or sewing, as they relied upon their slave labor to conduct the daily chores. Due to the men being in the military and often away from home, the women had full authority over their households and were not forced into a life of only childbearing and housekeeping. Since Spartan women demonstrated a greater authoritative influence, the nation thrived and became a beacon of advancement, which would truly be a closer resemblance to modern civilizations than Athens.When Athenian girls came of age, their fathers offered them for marriage. Even as wives, they were required to stay indoors at all times, and their primary life tasks were child rearing, housework, and sewing, thus giving them no possibility to contribute to the Athenian's development and culture. Sparta was uneasy, perpetually concentrating on war and the state of Sparta as a whole, while the Athenians focused their attention on comfort and found time to foster great thinkers in science, philosophy, literatur e†¦etc.With their differences in government, physical surroundings and views on women, Sparta and Athens represented the two very different ways a polis could have been back in the fifth century of Ancient Greece, and thus set them-selves on a crash course for supreme dominance, but war and battle would hold a true value to the Greeks, and so it was battles which lead to great alliances and enemies. In 478 BC, following the defeat of Xerxes' invasion of Greece, Pausanias the Spartan led Hellenic forces against the Persians.He was an unpopular commander (who may have conspired with the Persians), and Sparta was eager to stop prosecuting the war. Sparta surrendered the leadership of the ongoing campaign to Athens, whom was eager to accept it. The Athenians now had their opportunity to take the reins and gain glory for themselves and Greece. The Delian League was inaugurated in 477 BC as an offensive and defensive alliance against Persia. The principal cities in the League were At hens, Chios, Samos, and Lesbos, but many of the principal islands and Ionian cities joined the league.Athens led the Delian League from the beginning, though at its founding the treasury was located on the island of Delos, and each state in the league had an equal vote. The assessment due from each state was assigned by Aristides the Just, leader of the Athenians; some members were assessed ships, others troops, others weapons, and others money. A council of all the cities met at Delos regularly, probably when bringing their assessment to the island. The turning point of the Delian league occurred in 461 BC, when Cimon was ostracized, and was succeeded in his influence by democrats like Ephialtes and Pericles.This signaled a complete change in Athenian foreign policy, neglecting the alliance with the Spartans and instead allying with her enemies, Argos and Thessaly. Megara deserted the Peloponnesian league and allied herself with Athens, allowing construction of a double line of wal ls across the Isthmus of Corinth, protecting Athens from attack from that quarter. Around the same time they also constructed the Long Walls connecting their city to the Piraeus, its port, making it effectively invulnerable to attack by land.The Athenian dominance within the Delian league was unmatched and unquestioned; this led to major changes within the Delian league and Athens. This progression and events will be discussed later within this essay. Reverting back, the Delian league was not the only alliance within Greece, as the Spartan lead Peloponnesian league also took root. In the second half of the 8th century B. C. , Sparta conquered Messenia, a state in the southwest of the Peloponnese. The land was turned over to Spartans and the Messenians turned into helots.The Messenians revolted in the middle of the next century, but after 17 years, the Spartans prevailed. By the time the Spartans were attacking the Arcadian city of Tegea, in the 6th century; her plans for the conquer ed citizens had changed. Tegea was made a dependent state obligated to furnish troops. Sparta soon created a confederacy of most of the other Peloponnesian states according them a similar arrangement: Sparta was in charge (known as the hegemon) and they would supply troops. Each had its own treaty and sent deputies to help in decision-making.This became known as the Peloponnesian League. Unlike that of the Delian League, the Peloponnesian league has no official start date, as each treaty was collected and approved over time and in that time the tag name of Peloponnesian league was given. This league was formed in recognition of Sparta’s dominance and no misconceptions of that were ever given. Each city-state that joined recognized Sparta’s military power as better than their own, and utilized the Peloponnesian League as a body guard against other city-states looking to invade them.Under the protection of the Spartans, their allies enjoyed a voice when they would have b een forced to remain silent. Unlike Athens, the Spartans did not make their allies pay any tribute, but they did ensure they were governed by oligarchies (who would work in the interest of the Spartans). It is important to note: Argolis and Achaea were excluded from this league. Argos and Sparta had been at odds over the territory of Thyreatis. Their first battle had proved to be inconclusive, as the story goes, all but one on the Spartan side and two on the Argive side were killed.The Argives claimed the victory because more survived, and went back home. The Spartan stayed on the spot and therefore claimed he was the victor. The next time the two sides fought, the Argives clearly lost and forfeited the territory to Sparta. With two powerful alliances within Greece, one would conclude that war would have been inevitable; however, Sparta did not want to advance into war with Athens. Athens did not wish to advance into war with Sparta, but the corruption of Athens created a chain of e vents which spawned the forthcoming war.Thucydides expresses the cause of the Peloponnesian war to be that of Sparta’s jealousy and concern in Athens growing power. This is stated in Book 1 verse 23, when Thucydides states, â€Å"But the real reason for the war is, in my opinion, most likely to be disguised by such an argument. What made war inevitable was the growth of Athenian power and the fear which this caused in Sparta. † This view point is, in my opinion, very closed minded to the whole. The history of the Delian league leads to a better perspective in that the Delian League, particularly the Athenians, were willing to force cities to join or stay in the League.As an example to this, let us examine Carystus, a city on the southern tip of Euboea, who was forced to join the League by military force of the Athenians. The justification for this was that Carystus was enjoying the advantages of the League (protection from pirates and the Persians) without taking on an y of the responsibilities. Furthermore, Carystus was a traditional base for Persian occupations. The Athenian politicians had to justify these acts to Athenian voters in order to get votes, and so they utilized oration to sway the public vantage of the situation.Next is Naxos, a member of the Delian League, which attempted to secede, and was enslaved; Naxos is believed to have been forced to tear down her walls, lost her fleet, and her vote in the Delian League. Thucydides tells us that this is how Athens' control over the League grew. â€Å"Of all the causes of defection that connected with arrears of tribute and vessels, and with failure of service, was the chief; for the Athenians were very severe and exacting, and made themselves offensive by applying the screw of necessity to men who were not used to and in fact not disposed for any continuous labor.In some other respects the Athenians were not the old popular rulers they had been at first; and if they had more than their fair share of service, it was correspondingly easy for them to reduce any that tried to leave the confederacy. The Athenians also arranged for the other members of the league to pay its share of the expense in money instead of in ships and men, and for this the subject city-states had themselves to blame, their wish to get out of giving service making most leave their homes.Thus while Athens was increasing her navy with the funds they contributed, a revolt always found itself without enough resources or experienced leaders for war. † -Thucydides At this point it is important to note that Thucydides is an Athenian General, and even though he offers a large writing to state he will approach his historical account with eyewitness testimony and scientific based method†¦he is bound to bias. Even the name most commonly known as the Peloponnesian War is biased upon the Athenian view point. In Spartan record, the war is referred to as the Athenian War.In ancient Greek writings the na me of a battle is given to the opposing side, as to infer the enemy started the confrontation and modern translation is inclined to demonstrate this. If at this point one is resistant to this view point, I offer Thucydides own words when commenting on why Athens became the dictator of the Delian League, â€Å"†We have done nothing surprising, nothing contrary to human nature, if we accepted leadership when it was offered and are now unwilling to give it up. † -Thucydides With Thucydides now shown as biased record, the observation of what truly caused the Peloponnesian/Athenian war is to come to light.Athens and Sparta were the superpowers of ancient Greece, with only Corinth possessing the ability to be of notable mention in matching these powers. In 454 BC, Athens moved the treasury of the Delian League from Delos to Athens, allegedly to keep it safe from Persia. However, Plutarch indicates that many of Pericles' rivals viewed the transfer as Athens way to utilize the leagues monetary resources to fund elaborate building projects. They also switched from accepting ships, men and weapons, to only accepting money. The new treasury established in Athens was used for many purposes, not all relating to the defense of members of the league.It was from tribute paid to the league that Athenians built the Acropolis and the Parthenon, as well as many other non-defense related expenditures. It was during this time, Donald Kagan expresses, and the Athenian Empire arose, as the technical definition of empire is a group of cities paying taxes to a central, dominant city, while keeping local governments intact. This is what began to occur within the Delian League. It was turning from an alliance to an empire†¦against the wishes of the league. With Athens now being the most powerful of the Delian league, the smaller city-states were obliged to remain†¦or join Sparta.The smaller city-states are, in my opinion, the true cause of the Peloponnesian War, as they began to bounce from an alliance with Athens to Sparta and vice versa. If Athens and Sparta are to be viewed as two boulders, connected by a single chain (which represents the smaller city states), as the chain pulls from one to the other†¦the boulders become destined to collide. This situation is reminiscing to England v. France, U. S. A. v. Russia (Cold War) and multiple other wars since the Peloponnesian War. Both sides had many opportunities for diplomacy to take effect, and the outcomes pushed force into the only method of resolution.Diplomacy in Sparta consisted of the allies of the Peloponnese to take up the forum and express their grievances. Corinth laid the foundation and even though the Spartan king attempted to refrain from entering into a war with Athens, the council voted to declare war upon Athens for their many violations of the peace treaty. With that, an ultimatum was sent to Athens; The Spartan assembly decreed that Athens should abandon the siege of Po tidaea and should give Aegina her independence, but the chief point was that war could be avoided if Athens would revoke the Megarian decree which excluded the Megarians from all ports n the Athenian Empire and from the market in Attica itself. The Athenians focused upon the latter of the demands, (seeing as they would not yield to the first), and in this Pericles gives a riveting speech to the assembly stating that giving in to any of Sparta’s demands would be an act of submissiveness and that would, in turn, lead to Sparta dictating further Athenian actions. The council voted for war and thus the Athenian war began. This was the final attempt at diplomacy before the two juggernauts squared off against each other.Diplomacy, to this point, has kept the giants in their respective corners, but the inferior city-states pushed them into battle. The Spartans knew of their inferiorities on the ocean, and of their perpetual tether to their homeland†¦and in so, they were limited . The Athenians relied upon their superior numbers, finances, navy and arrogance to see them through as victors. On paper the battle was desperately in the Athenians favor, but Sparta was breed for war, and Athens had turned friends into enemies. Finally, it is important to remember Athens set out with great intention, as the Delian League was a symbol of unity and cohesive teamwork.With that great power, Athens became dependent upon the tributes and became a superpower of monumental stature. Athens then began punishing any of those that wished or attempted to defect from the Delian league. It is now apparent why the Delian league is synonymous with the Athenian Empire, and proof that power leads to corruption. About now, one remembers that Sparta won this conflict, (with the aid of the Persians), and became the supreme ruler of all Greece. True to the Peloponnesian league, Sparta instituted an oligarchy within the borders of Athens, and that lasted for thirty years.It was not corru ption that led to the fall of the Athenian oligarchy; it was the people and their customization to democracy. The oligarchy was overthrown and democracy was instilled back into the polis. This demonstrates that not all subjective groups with power will abuse it, but when power is free to be grasped†¦beware. The story continues to demonstrate how Athens and Sparta were so devastated by fighting each other, that Philip of Macedonia was able to sweep in and conquer all of Greece. This set up the perfect opportunity for Alexander the Great, (Philips son) to conquer the known world and spread the greatness of Greece to all corners.Without the Peloponnesian War, Philip would probably not been able to conquer and the Hellenistic theology would have been confined. When viewing epic battles between the boulders of humanity, it is essential to remember; the outcome is necessary for the future line of events to occur. BIBLIOGRAPHY * Donald Kagan, 2003, The Peloponesian War, Publisher: Pen guin Group (U. S. A) * Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) * Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans.J. M. Moore (Berkeley California: University of California Press, 1975) * Paul Cartledge, 2002, The Spartans, Publisher: Vintage Publishing (New York) * Nic Fields, 2007, Thermopylae 480 BC: Last Stand of the 300, Publisher: Osprey Publishing (Oxford UK) * Karolos Papoulias, 2006, Athens-Sparta, Publisher: Alexander S. Onassis Public Benefit Foundation (U. S. A. ) * D. M. Macdowell, 1986, Spartan Law, Publisher: Penguin Group (Edinburgh Scot. ) * C. A. Hignett, 1952, History of the Athenian Constitution to the end of the fifth century B. C. Publisher: University of Oxford press (Oxford) * Yannis Lolos, 2006, The history of Athens from the eighth to the late fifth century B. C. , Publisher: Alexander S. Onassis Public Benefit Foundation (U. S. A) * Herodotus, The Histories,ed. Jo hn Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London: Penguin Group publishing, 2003) ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Herodotus, The Histories,ed. John Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London: Penguin Group publishing, 2003) Verse 6. 52 [ 2 ]. Herodotus, The Histories,ed. John Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London: Penguin Group publishing, 2003) Verse 5. 6-60 [ 3 ]. Herodotus, The Histories,ed. John Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London: Penguin Group publishing, 2003) Verse 5. 40 [ 4 ]. Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans. J. M. Moore (Berkeley California: University of California Press, 1975) Verse 15. 7 of Xenophon â€Å"The Politeia of the Spartans† [ 5 ]. Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans. J. M. Moore (Berkeley California: University of California Press, 1975) taken fro m Aristotle’s The Constitution of Athens [ 6 ]. Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans.J. M. Moore (Berkeley California: University of California Press, 1975) taken from Aristotle’s The Constitution of Athens [ 7 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 79-85 [ 8 ]. Herodotus hints to this, but quickly states the facts are not there for condemning [ 9 ]. Kagan, 2003, The Peloponnesian War, Published by Penguin Group (U. S. A. ) [ 10 ]. Lolos, The history of Athens from the eighth to the late fifth century B. C. , 2006, Publisher: Alexander S. Onassis Public Benefit Foundation (U. S. A) [ 11 ].Hegemon utilized by Thucydides to describe this relationship [ 12 ]. Cartledge, The Spartans, 2003, Publisher: Vintage Books (U. S. A) [ 13 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 19 [ 14 ]. Fields, Thermopylae 480 B. C. , 2007, Publisher: Osprey Publishing (U. S. A) [ 15 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 23 [ 16 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 99 [ 17 ].Cartledge, The Spartans, 2003, Publisher: Vintage Books (U. S. A) pg. 181 [ 18 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 76 [ 19 ]. Kagan, 2003, The Peloponnesian War, Published by Penguin Group (U. S. A. ) [ 20 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 39 [ 21 ]. I utilize the term Athenian war, because it was the Athenians who ultimately decided to engage in battle, as the Spartans were trying to appease their allies and avoid war as well.